Here my friend presentation last week ! :)
A. PHONETICS
Phonetics (pronounced /fəˈnɛtɪks/, from the Greek: φωνή, phōnē, 'sound, voice') is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of humanspeech, or—in the case of sign languages—the equivalent aspects of sign.[1] It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status.
Phonetics is the study of sounds and the humanic voice. It is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones) as well as those of non-speech sounds, and their production, audition and perception, as opposed to phonology, which is the study of sound systems and abstract sound units (such as phonemes and distinctive features). Phonetics deals with the sounds themselves rather than the contexts in which they are used in languages. Discussions of meaning (semantics) do not enter at this level of linguistic analysis, therefore.
While writing systems and alphabets often attempt to represent the sounds of speech, phoneticians are more concerned with the sounds themselves than the symbols used to represent them. So close is the relationship between them, however, that many dictionaries list the study of the symbols (more accurately semiotics) as a part of phonetic studies. Logographic writing systems typically give much less phonetic information, although it is not necessarily non-existent. For instance, in Chinese characters, a phonetic is a portion of the character that hints at its pronunciation, while the radical gives semantic information. Characters featuring the same phonetic typically have similar pronunciations, but by no means are the pronunciations predictably determined by the phonetic; this is because pronunciations diverged over many centuries while the characters remained the same. Not all Chinese characters are radical-phonetic compounds, but a good majority of them are.
Phonetics is the science which analyses and records sounds and the elements of speech, and their use and distribution in connected sentences ( W. Heffner & Sons, 1972 ).
When we speak we produce a stream of sound, which is extremely difficult to examine because it is continous, rapid and soon gone. The linguist has therefore to find a way to break down the stream of speech so that the units may be studied and described accurately.
B. TYPE OF PHONETICS
· Articulatory phonetics
Speech sounds, known as phonemes, depend on the airflow from the lungs through the vocal tract and the various ways this airflow is interrupted or modified. The vocal organs are the larynx with the glottis and vocal cords; the pharynx and nasal passages; and the mouth, which includes the uvula, hard and soft palates, alveolus (dental ridge), tongue, teeth and lips. Consonants involve full or partial blocking of the airflow, and are classified according to where it is blocked and the resulting types of sound. These include stops (like p, b, t, d, k, g); fricatives (f, v, sh, h, th); nasals (m, n); and liquids (l, r). Vowels, of which there are 14 in English, with three diphthongs, are classified by the position of the tongue and lips, and the length of the vowel.
· Acoustic phonetics
Sound waves cause small variations in air pressure, which the ear picks up. The two main types of speech sound are voiced and unvoiced. Voiced sounds, for example b, d, v or z, have periodic (regular) sound waves made by the vibrations of the vocal cords; while unvoiced sounds, such as p, t, f or s, occur when air passes through the glottis without making the cords vibrate. To the listener, sounds vary in pitch, loudness and quality, which depend largely on the frequency and amplitude of the sound waves.
C. THE ORGAN OF SPEECH
Picture 1
1-nasal cavity
2-lips
3-teeth
4-aveolar ridge
5-hard palate
6-velum (soft palate)
7-uvula
8-apex (tip) of tongue
9-blade (front) of tongue
10-dorsum (back) of tongue
11-oral cavity
12-pharynx
13-epiglottis
14-larynx
15-vocal cords
16-trachea
17-esophagus
Picture 1 shows the main organs of speech : the jaw, the lips, the teeth, the teeth ridge ( usually called the alveolar ridge), the tongue, the hard palate, the soft palate ( the velum), the pharynx, the larynx and the vocal cords.
Sound could not occur without air. The air required for most sound comes from the lungs and is thus egressive (‘going out’). Certain sounds in languages can, however, be made with air sucked in through the mouth, such sounds are called ingressive (‘going in’).
If the vocal cords are relaxed and apart, the air passes between them without causing vibration, as when we make a hissing sound like sss. In speaking,when the vocal cords vibrate, the sound produced is a voiced sound. When the vocal cords do not vibrate, the sound produced is a voiceless sound. You can feel the vibration of a voiced sound by placing your hand over the voice box or hear it by covering your ears. Test this by saying the last sound in buzz, ridge, hiss, and rich.
Above the voice box is the pharynx or pharyngeal cavity, which acts as a resonating chamber for the sounds produced by vibratinon of vocal cords. The shape of this cavity can be modified so that the airstream can be completely or partially stopped by the action of the soft palate or the tongue.
In the head are the organs of aarticulation and two cavities : the oral cavity (or mouth) and the nasal cavity (or nose). The organs of articulation in the upper part of the mouth are the uvula, the soft palate, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge (the gums behind the upper front teeth), the upper teeth and the upper lip. The organs of articulation in the lower part of the mouth are the tongue, the lower teeth and the lower lip. The tongue has been divided into three parts : the back, the front and the apex (or tip). The tongue is the most flexible organ of speech because every part of it can be moved.
D. PLACE OF ARTICULATION
In the production of speech sounds, the organs in the upper part of the mouth may be described as places or points of articulation and those in the lower part of the mouth as articulators.
The eight commonest places of articulation are :
Bilabial : where the lips come together as in the sounds /p/ , /b/ , and /m/.
Labiodental : where the lower lip and the upper teeth come together, as for the sounds /f/ and /v/.
Dental : where the tip or the blade of the tongue comes in contact with the upper teeth as in the pronunciation of the initial sounds in ‘thief’ and ‘then’, represented by the symbols /θ/ and /ð/
Alveolar : where the tip or blade of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge which is directly behind the upper teeth. In English, the sounds made in the alveolar region predominate in the language. By this we mean that the most frequently occurring consonants /t, d, s, z, n, l, r/ are all made by approximating the tongue to the alveolar ridge.
Palate-alveolar : as the name suggests, there are two points of contact for these sounds. The tip of the tongue is close to the alveolar ridge while the front of the tongue is concave to the roof of the mouth. In English, there are four palate-alveolar sounds, the affricates / tʃ/ and / dʒ/ and fricatives / ʃ/ and / ʒ/, the sounds that occur, respectively, at the beginning of the word ‘shut’ and in the middle of the word ‘measure’.
Palatal : for palatal sounds, the front of the tongue approximates to the hard palate. It is possible to have palatal plosives, fricatives, laterals and nasals, but in English the only palatal is the voiced semi-vowel /j/ as ‘you’.
Velar : for velars, the back of the tongue approximates to the soft palate. As with other points of contact, several types of sound can be made here. In English there are four consonants made in the velar region, the plosives /k,g/, the nasal / ŋ/ and the voiced semi vowel /w/ as in ‘woo’.
E. MANNER OF ARTICULATION
When we produce speech sounds, the airflow is interfered with by the articulators in the lower part of the mouth moving towards the points of articulation in the upper part of the mouth. The resulting opening is called the manner of articulation.
Stop: the active articulator touches the passive articulator and completely cuts off the airflow through the mouth. English stops include: [p], [d], [k], [m].
Plasives : these involve complete closure at some point in the mouth. Pressure builds up behind the closure and when the air is suddenly released a plosive is made. In English, three types of closure occur resulting in three sets of plosives. The closure can be made by two lips, producing the bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/; it can be made by the tongue pressing against the alveolar ridge, producing the alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/ and it can be made by the back of the tongue pressing against the soft palate, producing the velar plosives /k/ and /g/.
Fricatives : these sounds are the result of incomplete closure at some point in the mouth. The air escapes through a narrowed channel with audible friction. If you approximate the upper teeth to the lower lip and allow the air to escape you can produce the labio-dental fricatives /f/ and /v/. Again, if you approximate the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge, you can produce the alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/.
Trills : these involve intermittent closure. Sounds can be produced by tapping the tongue repetedly against a point of contact. If you roll the /r/ at the beginning of a word saying :
r.r.r/roaming
you are tapping the curled front of the tongue against the alveolar ridge producing a trill which is, for example, characteristic of some Scottish pronunciations of English.
Laterals : these sounds involve partial closure in mouth. The air stram is blocked by the tip of the tongue but allowed to eescape around the sides of the tongue. In English, the initial /I/ sounds in ‘light’ is a lateral; so is the final sound in ‘full’
Nasals : these sounds involve the complete closure of the mouth. The velum is lowered, diverting the air through the nose. In English, the vocal cords vibrate in the production of nasals and so English nasals are voiced. The three nasals in English are /m/ as in ‘mat’, /n/ as in ‘no’ and / ŋ/ as in ‘sing’.
Affricates : affricates are a combination of sounds. Initially there is complete closuer as for a plosive. This is then followed by a slow release with friction, as for a fricatives. The sound at the beginning of ‘chop’ is a voiceless affricates rrepresented by symbol / tʃ/. We make the closure as for /t/ and then release the air slowly. The sound at the beginning and end of ‘judge’ is a voiced affricate, represented by the symbol / dʒ/.
Frictionless continuants : in making the /r/ sound associated with BBC English, the closure is made as for the fricatives /s/ and /z/ but the air is released with less pressure.
Semi-vowel : the sounds that begin the word ‘you’ and ‘wet’ are made without closure in the mouth. To this extent, they are vowel like. They normally occur at the beginning of a word or syllable, however, and thus behave functionally like consonants. The semi-vowels are represented by the symbols /j/ and /w/.
F. VOWEL AND CONSONANT
A vowel is a speech sound made by allowing breath to flow out of the mouth, without closing any part of the mouth or throat (although the lips may move to create the correct sound, as in creating the sound “o”). Letters of the English alphabet that represent vowels: a, e, i, o, u, and
sometimes y.
a. Single Vowel Sound
1. Short vowel : example i à hit
2. Long vowel : example :i à heat
b. Dipthong
Combination involving a movement one vowel to another.
A consonant is a speech sound made by partially or completely blocking the flow of air through the mouth (using the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate). Letters of the English alphabet that represent consonants include all the letters that are not vowels. Examples: b, d, k, s.
A. PHONETICS
Phonetics (pronounced /fəˈnɛtɪks/, from the Greek: φωνή, phōnē, 'sound, voice') is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of humanspeech, or—in the case of sign languages—the equivalent aspects of sign.[1] It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status.
Phonetics is the study of sounds and the humanic voice. It is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones) as well as those of non-speech sounds, and their production, audition and perception, as opposed to phonology, which is the study of sound systems and abstract sound units (such as phonemes and distinctive features). Phonetics deals with the sounds themselves rather than the contexts in which they are used in languages. Discussions of meaning (semantics) do not enter at this level of linguistic analysis, therefore.
While writing systems and alphabets often attempt to represent the sounds of speech, phoneticians are more concerned with the sounds themselves than the symbols used to represent them. So close is the relationship between them, however, that many dictionaries list the study of the symbols (more accurately semiotics) as a part of phonetic studies. Logographic writing systems typically give much less phonetic information, although it is not necessarily non-existent. For instance, in Chinese characters, a phonetic is a portion of the character that hints at its pronunciation, while the radical gives semantic information. Characters featuring the same phonetic typically have similar pronunciations, but by no means are the pronunciations predictably determined by the phonetic; this is because pronunciations diverged over many centuries while the characters remained the same. Not all Chinese characters are radical-phonetic compounds, but a good majority of them are.
Phonetics is the science which analyses and records sounds and the elements of speech, and their use and distribution in connected sentences ( W. Heffner & Sons, 1972 ).
When we speak we produce a stream of sound, which is extremely difficult to examine because it is continous, rapid and soon gone. The linguist has therefore to find a way to break down the stream of speech so that the units may be studied and described accurately.
B. TYPE OF PHONETICS
· Articulatory phonetics
Speech sounds, known as phonemes, depend on the airflow from the lungs through the vocal tract and the various ways this airflow is interrupted or modified. The vocal organs are the larynx with the glottis and vocal cords; the pharynx and nasal passages; and the mouth, which includes the uvula, hard and soft palates, alveolus (dental ridge), tongue, teeth and lips. Consonants involve full or partial blocking of the airflow, and are classified according to where it is blocked and the resulting types of sound. These include stops (like p, b, t, d, k, g); fricatives (f, v, sh, h, th); nasals (m, n); and liquids (l, r). Vowels, of which there are 14 in English, with three diphthongs, are classified by the position of the tongue and lips, and the length of the vowel.
· Acoustic phonetics
Sound waves cause small variations in air pressure, which the ear picks up. The two main types of speech sound are voiced and unvoiced. Voiced sounds, for example b, d, v or z, have periodic (regular) sound waves made by the vibrations of the vocal cords; while unvoiced sounds, such as p, t, f or s, occur when air passes through the glottis without making the cords vibrate. To the listener, sounds vary in pitch, loudness and quality, which depend largely on the frequency and amplitude of the sound waves.
C. THE ORGAN OF SPEECH
Picture 1
1-nasal cavity
2-lips
3-teeth
4-aveolar ridge
5-hard palate
6-velum (soft palate)
7-uvula
8-apex (tip) of tongue
9-blade (front) of tongue
10-dorsum (back) of tongue
11-oral cavity
12-pharynx
13-epiglottis
14-larynx
15-vocal cords
16-trachea
17-esophagus
Picture 1 shows the main organs of speech : the jaw, the lips, the teeth, the teeth ridge ( usually called the alveolar ridge), the tongue, the hard palate, the soft palate ( the velum), the pharynx, the larynx and the vocal cords.
Sound could not occur without air. The air required for most sound comes from the lungs and is thus egressive (‘going out’). Certain sounds in languages can, however, be made with air sucked in through the mouth, such sounds are called ingressive (‘going in’).
If the vocal cords are relaxed and apart, the air passes between them without causing vibration, as when we make a hissing sound like sss. In speaking,when the vocal cords vibrate, the sound produced is a voiced sound. When the vocal cords do not vibrate, the sound produced is a voiceless sound. You can feel the vibration of a voiced sound by placing your hand over the voice box or hear it by covering your ears. Test this by saying the last sound in buzz, ridge, hiss, and rich.
Above the voice box is the pharynx or pharyngeal cavity, which acts as a resonating chamber for the sounds produced by vibratinon of vocal cords. The shape of this cavity can be modified so that the airstream can be completely or partially stopped by the action of the soft palate or the tongue.
In the head are the organs of aarticulation and two cavities : the oral cavity (or mouth) and the nasal cavity (or nose). The organs of articulation in the upper part of the mouth are the uvula, the soft palate, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge (the gums behind the upper front teeth), the upper teeth and the upper lip. The organs of articulation in the lower part of the mouth are the tongue, the lower teeth and the lower lip. The tongue has been divided into three parts : the back, the front and the apex (or tip). The tongue is the most flexible organ of speech because every part of it can be moved.
D. PLACE OF ARTICULATION
In the production of speech sounds, the organs in the upper part of the mouth may be described as places or points of articulation and those in the lower part of the mouth as articulators.
The eight commonest places of articulation are :
Bilabial : where the lips come together as in the sounds /p/ , /b/ , and /m/.
Labiodental : where the lower lip and the upper teeth come together, as for the sounds /f/ and /v/.
Dental : where the tip or the blade of the tongue comes in contact with the upper teeth as in the pronunciation of the initial sounds in ‘thief’ and ‘then’, represented by the symbols /θ/ and /ð/
Alveolar : where the tip or blade of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge which is directly behind the upper teeth. In English, the sounds made in the alveolar region predominate in the language. By this we mean that the most frequently occurring consonants /t, d, s, z, n, l, r/ are all made by approximating the tongue to the alveolar ridge.
Palate-alveolar : as the name suggests, there are two points of contact for these sounds. The tip of the tongue is close to the alveolar ridge while the front of the tongue is concave to the roof of the mouth. In English, there are four palate-alveolar sounds, the affricates / tʃ/ and / dʒ/ and fricatives / ʃ/ and / ʒ/, the sounds that occur, respectively, at the beginning of the word ‘shut’ and in the middle of the word ‘measure’.
Palatal : for palatal sounds, the front of the tongue approximates to the hard palate. It is possible to have palatal plosives, fricatives, laterals and nasals, but in English the only palatal is the voiced semi-vowel /j/ as ‘you’.
Velar : for velars, the back of the tongue approximates to the soft palate. As with other points of contact, several types of sound can be made here. In English there are four consonants made in the velar region, the plosives /k,g/, the nasal / ŋ/ and the voiced semi vowel /w/ as in ‘woo’.
E. MANNER OF ARTICULATION
When we produce speech sounds, the airflow is interfered with by the articulators in the lower part of the mouth moving towards the points of articulation in the upper part of the mouth. The resulting opening is called the manner of articulation.
Stop: the active articulator touches the passive articulator and completely cuts off the airflow through the mouth. English stops include: [p], [d], [k], [m].
Plasives : these involve complete closure at some point in the mouth. Pressure builds up behind the closure and when the air is suddenly released a plosive is made. In English, three types of closure occur resulting in three sets of plosives. The closure can be made by two lips, producing the bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/; it can be made by the tongue pressing against the alveolar ridge, producing the alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/ and it can be made by the back of the tongue pressing against the soft palate, producing the velar plosives /k/ and /g/.
Fricatives : these sounds are the result of incomplete closure at some point in the mouth. The air escapes through a narrowed channel with audible friction. If you approximate the upper teeth to the lower lip and allow the air to escape you can produce the labio-dental fricatives /f/ and /v/. Again, if you approximate the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge, you can produce the alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/.
Trills : these involve intermittent closure. Sounds can be produced by tapping the tongue repetedly against a point of contact. If you roll the /r/ at the beginning of a word saying :
r.r.r/roaming
you are tapping the curled front of the tongue against the alveolar ridge producing a trill which is, for example, characteristic of some Scottish pronunciations of English.
Laterals : these sounds involve partial closure in mouth. The air stram is blocked by the tip of the tongue but allowed to eescape around the sides of the tongue. In English, the initial /I/ sounds in ‘light’ is a lateral; so is the final sound in ‘full’
Nasals : these sounds involve the complete closure of the mouth. The velum is lowered, diverting the air through the nose. In English, the vocal cords vibrate in the production of nasals and so English nasals are voiced. The three nasals in English are /m/ as in ‘mat’, /n/ as in ‘no’ and / ŋ/ as in ‘sing’.
Affricates : affricates are a combination of sounds. Initially there is complete closuer as for a plosive. This is then followed by a slow release with friction, as for a fricatives. The sound at the beginning of ‘chop’ is a voiceless affricates rrepresented by symbol / tʃ/. We make the closure as for /t/ and then release the air slowly. The sound at the beginning and end of ‘judge’ is a voiced affricate, represented by the symbol / dʒ/.
Frictionless continuants : in making the /r/ sound associated with BBC English, the closure is made as for the fricatives /s/ and /z/ but the air is released with less pressure.
Semi-vowel : the sounds that begin the word ‘you’ and ‘wet’ are made without closure in the mouth. To this extent, they are vowel like. They normally occur at the beginning of a word or syllable, however, and thus behave functionally like consonants. The semi-vowels are represented by the symbols /j/ and /w/.
F. VOWEL AND CONSONANT
A vowel is a speech sound made by allowing breath to flow out of the mouth, without closing any part of the mouth or throat (although the lips may move to create the correct sound, as in creating the sound “o”). Letters of the English alphabet that represent vowels: a, e, i, o, u, and
sometimes y.
a. Single Vowel Sound
1. Short vowel : example i à hit
2. Long vowel : example :i à heat
b. Dipthong
Combination involving a movement one vowel to another.
A consonant is a speech sound made by partially or completely blocking the flow of air through the mouth (using the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate). Letters of the English alphabet that represent consonants include all the letters that are not vowels. Examples: b, d, k, s.
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